Календарные обычаи и обряды в странах зарубежной Европы XIX - начало XX в.

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Popular customs and rituals are relics of the peoples’ historic past. Many of them are connected with definite calendar dates; in most cases they are timed to Christian holidays; however, careful study reveals that «calendar» rituals are based upon customs that had become formed long before the spread of Christianity in Europe. «Pre-Christian» elements are still distinctly apparent almost in all customs, rituals and beliefs connected with church holidays: this includes various omens and forecasts of the weather and the harvest, as well as of changes in family life: marriage, birth of children, death, etc.; also ritual meals; various prohibitions; games, dances, entertainments; making a round of houses with songs and good wishes; mummery, masked festivals, ritual fire; the custom of gift exchange; connection with the cult of the dead; beliefs about evil spirits, witches, etc. These diverse customs turn out to be exceedingly similar among various European peoples. But they are differently distributed among the days of the church calendar and are timed to the memorial days of this saint or that, to Christmas or, alternatively, to the New Year.

Apart from the Christian church stratum (and partially accompanying it) the antique tradition is also felt: Greek and Roman holidays celebrated at certain points of the agricultural year.

These old-time customs and beliefs were based, it seems, upon the labour experience of the earliest cultivator and herdsman, his anxiety for the harvest, his eagerness to obtain and preserve it at all costs, as well as concern for the herds and for the whole household economy. To this a desire was added to forecast the destinies of the people themselves.