Сладкая история мира. 2000 лет господства сахара в экономике, политике и медицине

1. Сахарный мир Азии

1 Robert Mignan, Travels in Chaldea, Including a Journey from Bussorah to Bagdad, Hillah, and Babylon, Performed on Foot in 1827 (London: H.Colburn and R.Bentley, 1829), 304.

2 Mignan, Travels in Chaldea, 309; Carl Ritter, Über die geographische Verbreitung des Zuckerrohrs… (Berlin: Druckerei der k. Akademie, 1840), 1.

3 Alexander Burnes, Travels into Bokhara: Being the Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary and Persia… in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, vol. 2 (London: J.Murray, 1834), 453–454.

4 W.Heyd and Furcy Raynaud, Historie du commerce du Levant au moyen age, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1885–1886), 681; Mohamed Ouerfelli, Le sucre: Production, commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée médiévale (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 19–21; Ritter, Über die geographische, 67.

5 Tsugitaka Sato, Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 23.

6 Duarte Barbosa, A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar, in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century, trans. Henry E.J.Stanley (London: Hakluyt Society, 1866), 14.

7 Ritter, Über die geographische, 20.

8 Richard H.Major, India in the Fifteenth Century: Being a Collection of Narratives of Voyages to India… (London: Hakluyt Society, 1857), 27; Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Travels in India: Translated from the Original French Edition of 1676…, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1889); см. особенно: 1:275, 386, 391; также 2:264.

9 Ulbe Bosma, The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 38–39.

10 Lallanji Gopal, «Sugar-Making in Ancient India,» Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 7, no. 1 (1964): 65.

11 Edmund Oskar von Lippmann, Geschichte des Zuckers: Seit den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Beginn der Rübenzucker-Fabrikation: ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte (Berlin: Springer, 1929), 160–161.

12 Sucheta Mazumdar, Sugar and Society in China: Peasants, Technology, and the World Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 22, 26–27. Цзи Сянлинь полагает, что искусство изготовления сахара путем кипячения сока могло стать известным в Китае еще до 400 г. н. э. Ji Xianlin, A History of Sugar (Beijing: New Starr Press, 2017), 72, 78–80.

13 Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar…, vol. 1 (London: Cadell and Davies, 1807), 157–158.

14 Francis Buchanan, A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of the District of Dinajpur in the Province of Bengal (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1833), 301–307.

15 Bosma, The Sugar Plantation, 40.

16 Irfan Habib, Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500 (Delhi: Longman, 2011), 127; Ritter, Über die geographische, 32.

17 S.Husam Haider, «A Comparative Study of Pre-Modern and Modern Stone Sugar Mills (Distt. Agra and Mirzapur),» Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 59 (1998): 1018–1019; B.P.Mazumdar, «New Forms of Specialization in Industries of Eastern India in the Turko-Afghan Period», Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 31 (1969): 230.

18 Jan Lucassen, The Story of Work: A New History of Humankind (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021), 176–177.

19 Scott Levi, «India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade,» Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 42, no. 4 (1999): 529; R.H.Davies, Report on the Trade and Resources of the Countries on the North-Western Boundary of British India (Lahore: Government Press, 1862), 8–9; Anya King, «Eastern Islamic Rulers and the Trade with Eastern and Inner Asia in the 10th–11th Centuries,» Bulletin of the Asia Institute 25 (2011): 177; Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, 2:429.

20 Duarte Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa: An Account of the Countries Bordering on the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants [Mansel L.Dames], vol. 2 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1918), 112, 146; Barbosa, A Description, 60–69, 80; Ralph Fitch, «1583–1591 Ralph Fitch,» in Early Travels in India 1583–1619, ed. William Foster (London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1921), 24; Francois Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire A.D. 1656–1668: A Revised and Improved Edition Based upon Irving Brock’s Translation by Archibald Constable (Westminster, England: Archibald Constable, 1891), 283, 428, 437, 441, 442.

21 Слова Йоханнеса де Лата цитируются в источнике: Frederic Solomon Growse, Mathurd: A District Memoir, vol. 1 (North-Western Provinces’ Government Press, 1874), 115.

22 Haripada Chakraborti, «History of Irrigation in Ancient India,» Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 32 (1970): 155; Habib, Economic History, 194–195.

23 Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 142; Joseph Needham, Christian Daniels, and Nicholas K. Menzies, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 6, Biology and Biological Technology, pt. 3, Agro-Industries: Sugarcane Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 303–306.

24 Lady Fawcett, Charles Fawcett, and Richard Burn, The Travels of the Abbé Carré in India and the Near East, 1672 to 1674, vol. 1 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1947), 178; Barbosa, A Description, 60, 69, 155; John Fryer, A New Account of East-India and Persia… Being Nine Years Travels, Begun 1672 and Finished 1681… (London: Chiswell, 1698), 105; Tomé Pires, Armando Cortesão, and Francisco Rodrigues, The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515… (London: Hakluyt Society, 1944), 92; Barbosa, The Book, 1:64, 107, 188.

25 Ibn Battúta, Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 (London: George Routledge and Sons, 1929), 282.

26 Needham, Daniels, and Menzies, Sugar Cane Technology, 185; Billy K.L.So, Prosperity, Region, and Institutions in Maritime China: The South Fukien Sugar Cane Pattern, 946–1368 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center / Harvard University Press, 2000), 71.

27 Françoise Sabban, «Sucre candi et confiseries de Quinsai: L’essor du sucre de canne dans la Chine des Song (Xe – XIIIes.),» Journal d’Agriculture traditionelle et de Botanique appliquée 35, no. 1 (1988): 209; Françoise Sabban, «L’industrie sucrière, le moulin à sucre et les relations sino-portugaises aux XVIe – XVIIу siècles,» Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales 49 (1994): 836; Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 29–30; Needham, Daniels, and Menzies, Sugar Cane Technology, 92; So, Prosperity, 65–66; Paul Wheatley, «Geographical Notes on Some Commodities Involved in Sung Maritime Trade,» Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 32, no. 2 (186) (1959): 87; Ju-Kua Chau, Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the 12th and 13th Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-dii, trans. Friedrich Hirth and W.W.Rockhill (St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1911), 49, 53, 61, 67.

28 Джон Дэниелс и Кристиан Дэниелс утверждают, что кипячение багассы – отхода, оставшегося после извлечения из тростника сока, – позволяло сахарозе выйти через клеточные стенки в процессе диффузии. John Daniels and Christian Daniels, «The Origin of the Sugarcane Roller Mill», Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 524n.110. Они ссылаются на рассказ очевидца Экеберга: «A Short Account of Chinese Husbandry,» in Pehr Osbeck, A Voyage to China and the East Indies… and an Account of Chinese Husbandry, by Captain Charles Gustavus Eckeberg, trans. John Reinhold Forster, F.A.S., vol. 2 (London, Benjamin White, 1771), 197. Впрочем, ни Саббан, ни Мазумдар не упоминают о процессе диффузии – вместо этого они говорят о выдавливании сока из прокипяченной багассы. Sabban, «Sucre candi,» 202; Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 129–130.

29 Sato, Sugar in the Social Life, 49; Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East…, trans. and ed. Henry Yule and Henry Cordier, 2 vols (London: Murray, 1903), 1:intro., 98; 2:226.

30 Angela Schottenhammer, «Yang Liangyao’s Mission of 785 to the Caliph of Baghdad: Evidence of an Early Sino-Arabic Power Alliance?» Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extreme-Orient 101 (2015): 191, 208, 211; Xianlin, A History of Sugar, 127–128.

31 Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 162–163, Sabban, «L’industrie sucrière,» 843; Needham, Daniels, and Menzies, Sugar Cane Technology, 95–98.

32 Daniels and Daniels, «The Origin,» 528; Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 152–158. О теории, согласно которой на американском континенте на основе горизонтальной мельницы с тремя валками создали вертикальную, см.: Sabban, «L’industrie sucrière,» 824, 829, 831.

33 Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 160–161.

34 Chin-Keong Ng, Boundaries and Beyond: China’s Maritime Southeast in Late Imperial Times (Singapore: NUS Press, 2017), 104, 239–240.

35 Darra Goldstein, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 372, 467.

36 Данные собраны Нагацуми и приводятся в источнике: George Bryan Souza, «Hinterlands, Commodity Chains, and Circuits in Early Modern Asian History: Sugar in Qing China and Tokugawa Japan,» in Hinterlands and Commodities, ed. Tsukasa Mizushima, George Bryan Souza, and Dennis Owen Flynn (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 34.

37 Ng, Boundaries and Beyond, 227–228.

38 К середине XVII века среди населения китайского Тайваня, составлявшего 21 500 человек, 93 % составляли взрослые мужчины. См.: «Generale missiven van gouverners-generaal en raden aan heren XVII den Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie,» II, Grote Serie 112, 354–355, http://resources.huygens.khaw.nl/voctaiwan. Также в архивах Голландской Ост-Индской компании упоминается, что в производство сахара были вовлечены группы, названные kongsis: VOC, Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia, Taiwan, July 12, 1655, fol. 669, http://resources.huygens.khaw.nl/voctaiwan.

39 Chin-Keong Ng, Trade and Society: The Amoy Network on the China Coast, 1683–1735 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2015), 104, 134; Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 300; John Robert Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier: 1600–1800 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 159; Xianlin, A History of Sugar, 376.

40 Robert B.Marks and Chen Chunsheng, «Price Inflation and Its Social, Economic, and Climatic Context in Guangdong Province, 1707–1800,» T’oung Pao 81, fasc. 1/3 (1995): 117; Guanmian Xiu, «Sweetness and Chaozhou: Construction of Tropical Commodity Chains of the Early Modern China Coast, 1560s–1860s» (MA thesis, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2017), 57–59; Guanmian Xiu, «From the Atlantic to the Manchu: Taiwan Sugar and the Early Modern World, 1630s–1720s,» Journal of World History 33, no. 2 (2022): 295; Xianlin, A History of Sugar, 347, 414.

41 Osbeck, A Voyage to China, 2:297.

42 Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 173–177. См. также: Yukuo Uyehara, «Ryukyu Islands, Japan,» Economic Geography 9, no. 4 (1933): 400.

43 Yasuzo Horie, «The Encouragement of ‘Kokusan’ () or Native Products in the Tokugawa Period,» Kyoto University Economic Review 16, no. 2 (36) (1941): 45, 47; Souza, «Hinterlands,» 41–42; Laura Mason, Sweets and Candy: A Global History (London: Reaktion Books, 2018), 18; Goldstein, The Oxford Companion, 777.

44 Tansen Sen, «The Formation of Chinese Maritime Networks to Southern Asia, 1200–1450,» Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 49, no. 4 (2006): 426; Craig A. Lockard, «‘The Sea Common to All’: Maritime Frontiers, Port Cities, and Chinese Traders in the Southern Asian Age of Commerce, ca. 1400–1750,» Journal of World History 21, no. 2 (2010): 229–230.

45 Xianlin, A History of Sugar, 261, 263, 274.

46 См.: Guanmian Xu, «The ‘Perfect Map’ of Widow Hiamtse: A Micro-Spatial History of Sugar Plantations in Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1685–1710,» International Review of Social History 67, no. 1 (2021): 97–126.

47 Mazumdar, Sugar and Society, 68; John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993), 21.

48 Agustin de la Cavada y Méndez de Vigo, Historia geográfica, geológicos y estadísticos de las Islas de Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao y Jolo: Y los que Correspónden a las Islas Batanes, Calamianes, Balabac, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao y Burias, Situadas al n. so. y s. de Luzon, vol. 2 (Manila, Philippines: Imp. de Ramirez y Giraudier, 1876), vol. 2, 410.

49 Larkin, Sugar and the Origins, 22, 25–26; Nathaniel Bowditch and Mary C.McHale, Early American-Philippine Trade: The Journal of Nathaniel Bowditch in Manila, 1796 (New Haven, CT: Yale University, Southeast Asia Studies / Cellar Book Shop, Detroit, 1962), 31n.14.

50 Lockard, «‘The Sea Common,’» 237.

51 Pierre Poivre, Voyages d’un philosophe ou observations sur les moeurs et les arts des peuples de l’Afrique, de l’Asie et de l’Amerique, 3rd ed. (Paris: Du Pont, 1796), 89.

52 John Crawfurd, Journal of an Embassy from the Governor General of India to the Courts of Siam, vol. 1 (London: S. and R.Bentley, 1828), 474; Ritter, Über die geographische, 40; John White, History of a Voyage to the China Sea (Boston: Wells and Lily, 1823), 251, 260–261.

53 A.D.Blue, «Chinese Emigration and the Deck Passenger Trade,» Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 10 (1970): 80.

54 Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam, vol. 1 (Paris: Mission de Siam, 1854), 80–82.

55 James Carlton Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand since 1850 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1955), 4, 123–124; Jacob Baxa and Guntwin Bruhns, Zucker im Leben der Völker: Eine Kulturund Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Berlin: Bartens, 1967), 155.

56 Jean-Paul Morel, «Aux Archives Pusy La Fayette: Les archives personnelles de Pierre Poivre. Mémoire sur la Cochinchine,» no. 25 (April 2020): 8, http://www.pierre-poivre.fr/Arch-pusy-D.pdf; Pierre Poivre, Voyages d’un Philosophe, 90.

57 Bosma, The Sugar Plantation, 47–48.

58 James Low, A Dissertation on the Soil&Agriculture of the British Settlement of Penang, or Prince of Wales Island… Including Province Wellesley on the Malayan Peninsula… (Singapore: Singapore Free Press Office, 1836), 49–58.

59 Jan Hooyman, Verhandeling over den Tegenwoordigen Staat van den Landbouw in de Ommelanden van Batavia (Batavia: Bataviaasch Genootschap der Konsten en Wetenschappen, 1781), 184; P. Levert, Inheemsche Arbeid in de Java-Suikerindustrie (Wageningen, the Netherlands: Veenman, 1934), 55–56.

60 B.Hoetink, «So Bing Kong: Het Eerste Hoofd der Chineezen te Batavia (1619–1636),» Bijgraden tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenhunde van Nederlandsch-Indiё 73, nos. 3–4 (1917): 373–376; Tonio Andrade, «The Rise and Fall of Dutch Taiwan, 1624–1662: Cooperative Colonization and the Statist Model of European Expansion,» Journal of World History 17, no. 4 (2006): 439–440.

61 Andrade, «The Rise and Fall,» 445–447; Hui-Wen Koo, «Weather, Harvests, and Taxes: A Chinese Revolt in Colonial Taiwan,» Journal of Interdisciplinary History 46, no. 1 (2015): 41–42; Xu, «From the Atlantic,» 8, 11.

62 Hooyman, Verhandeling over den Tegenwoordigen Staat, 225, 238–239; Margaret Leidelmeijer, Van Suikermolen tot Grootbedrijf: Technische Vernieuwing in de Java-Suikerindustrie in de Negentiende Eeuw (Amsterdam: NEHA, 1997), 74, 324.

63 J.J.Reesse, De Suikerhandel van Amsterdam: Bijdrage tot de Handelsgeschiedenis des Vaderlands, Hoofdzakelijk uit de Archieven verzameld, vol. 1 (Haarlem: J.L.E. I Kleynenberg, 1908),

64 «Generale missiven van gouverneurs-generaal en raden aan heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie,» III, Grote Serie 125, 645, 743, http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl; Norifumi Daito, «Sugar Trade in the Eighteenth-Century Persian Gulf» (PhD diss., Leiden University, 2017), 23, 37, 68; Nadri, «The Dutch Intra-Asian Trade,» 76–77; James Silk Buckingham, Travels in Assyria, Media, and Persia, Including a Journey from Baghdad by Mount Zagros, to Hamadan, the Ancient Ecbatani… vol. 2 (London: Colburn and Bentley, 1830), 115, 117, 170.

65 Daito, «Sugar Trade,» 44, 47.

66 A.Mesud Kucukkalay and Numan Elibol, «Ottoman Imports in the Eighteenth Century: Smyrna (1771–1772),» Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 5 (2006): 730; James Justinian Morier, Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, in 1808 and 1809 (London: Longman, Hurst, 1812), 171–172; Sébastien Lupo «Revolution(s) d’échelles: Le marché levantin et la crise du commerce marseillais au miroir des maisons Roux et de leurs relais à Smyrne (1740–1787)» (PhD diss., Université Aix-Marseille, 2015), 580.

67 Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, 2:436.

68 William Milburn, Oriental Commerce: Containing a Geographical Description of the Principal Places in the East Indies, China, and Japan, with their Produce, Manufactures, and Trade…, vol. 2 (London: Black, Parry, 1813), 307, 547. При расчете экспорта в США, Персию и Аравию в 1805 году я предположил цену в 5 рупий за маунд (37,22 кг). См. также: East-India Sugar: Papers Respecting the Culture and Manufacture of Sugar in British-India^ Also Notices on the Cultivation of Sugar in Other Parts of Asia (London: E.Cox and Son, 1822), app. 4, 4.

69 В зависимости от качества и цены (которая варьировалась от 3,5 до 6,5 рупий за маунд) экспорт сахара из Бомбея и Сурата через западный Индийский океан, должно быть, составлял от 2200 до 4000 тонн, а вдоль побережья западной Индии – от 3100 до 5800 тонн. Milburn, Oriental Commerce, 1:148, 211–212, 223; William Milburn and Thomas Thornton, Oriental Commerce… (London, 1827), 41, 119.