Сладкая история мира. 2000 лет господства сахара в экономике, политике и медицине

13. Корпоративный сахар

1 Donald F.Larson and Brent Borrell, Sugar Policy and Reform (Washington, DC: World Bank, Development Research Group, Rural Development, 2001), 3.

2 См.: Stephen Haley, Sugar and Sweetener Situation and Outlook Report (Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, January 2000), 24–39; Richard Gibb, «Developing Countries and Market Access: The Bitter-Sweet Taste of the European Union’s Sugar Policy in Southern Africa,» Journal of Modern African Studies 42, no. 4 (2004): 569, 570.

3 Penny Fowler and Rian Fokker, «A Sweeter Future: The Potential for EU Sugar Reform to Contribute to Poverty Reduction in Southern Africa,» Oxfam Policy and Practice: Agriculture, Food and Land 4, no. 3 (2004): 4.

4 Gibb, «Developing Countries and Market Access,» 578; Andrew Schmitz, Troy G.Schmitz, and Frederick Rossi, «Agricultural Subsidies in Developed Countries: Impact on Global Welfare,» Review of Agricultural Economics 28, no. 3 (2006): 422; Won W.Koo, «Alternative U.S. and EU Sugar Trade Liberalization Policies and Their Implications,» Review of Agricultural Economics 24, no. 2 (2002): 348.

5 Jan Douwe van der Ploeg, «The Peasantries of the Twenty-First Century: The Commoditisation Debate Revisited,» Journal of Peasant Studies 37, no. 1 (2010): 18.

6 Цифра в $56 млрд в качестве общей величины субсидий упоминается в источнике: by Gawali Suresh, «Distortions in World Sugar Trade,» Economic and Political Weekly 38, no. 43 (2003): 4513.

7 «ILO Global Farm Worker Issues,» Rural Migration News 9, no. 4 (October 2003), https://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=785.

8 Alicia H.Lazzarini, «Gendered Labour, Migratory Labour: Reforming Sugar Regimes in Xinavane, Mozambique,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 621–622.

9 См., например: «Colombia: Sugar Cane Harvesters Demand Rights at Work,» International Trade Union Confederation, September 25, 2008, https://www.ituc-csi.org/colombia-sugar-cane-harvesters?lang=en.

10 Edward Suchman et al., «An Experiment in Innovation among Sugar Cane Cutters in Puerto Rico,» Human Organization Human Organization 26, no. 4 (1967): 215. См. также: Allan S.Queiroz and Raf Vanderstraeten, «Unintended Consequences of Job Formalisation: Precarious work in Brazil’s Sugarcane Plantations,» International Sociology 33, no. 1 (2018): 128–146.

11 Julie Lynn Coronado and Raymond Robertson, «Inter-American Development and the NAFTA: Implications of Liberalized Trade for the Caribbean Sugar Industry,» Caribbean Studies 29, no. 1 (1996): 128.

12 Wikipedia s.v., «The Price of Sugar (2007 Film),» дата обращения: 17.04.2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The Price of Sugar (2007 film); «Who Are the Richest Entrepreneurs in Central America and the Dominican Republic?» Dominican Today, June 29, 2020, https://dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2020/06/29/who-are-the-richest-entrepreneurs-in-central-america-and-the-dominican-republic/.

13 Amy Serrano, «A Black Camera Interview: Documentary Practice as Political Intervention: The Case of „Sugar Babies“: A Conversation With,» Black Camera 22–23 (2008): 39.

14 Serrano, «A Black Camera Interview,» 35.

15 Anthony W.Pereira, «Agrarian Reform and the Rural Workers’ Unions of the Pernambuco Sugar Zone, Brazil 1985–1988,» Journal of Developing Areas (1992): 173–175, 178, 188.

16 Eduardo Simoes and Inae Riveras, «Amnesty Condemns Forced Cane Labor in Brazil,» Reuters, May 29, 2008, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-amnesty-cane/amnesty-condemns-forced-cane-labor-in-brazil-idUSN2844873820080528; Queiroz and Vanderstraeten, «Unintended Consequences,» 137–138.

17 Dionne Bunsha, «Machines That Mow Down Migrants,» Dionne Bunsha (blog), March 31, 2007, https://dionnebunsha.wordpress.com/2007/03/31/machines-that-mow-down-migrants; Saturnino M.Borras, David Fig, and Sofía Monsalve Suárez, «The Politics of Agrofuels and Mega-Land and Water Deals: Insights from the ProCana Case, Mozambique,» Review of African Political Economy 38, no. 128 (2011): 221, 224.

18 Terry Macalister, «Sun Sets on Brazil’s Sugar-Cane Cutters,» Guardian, June 5, 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jun/05/biofuels.carbonemissions.

19 См.: Jussara dos Santos Rosendo, «Social Impacts with the End of the Manual Sugarcane Harvest: A Case Study in Brazil,» Sociology International Journal 1, no. 4 (2017): 121–125.

20 «Migrant Workers, Super-Exploitation and Identity: Case of Sugarcane Cutters in Gujarat,» Economic and Political Weekly 23, no. 23 (1988): 1153. См. также: Jan Breman, «Seasonal Migration and Co-Operative Capitalism: The Crushing of Cane and of Labour by the Sugar Factories of Bardoli, South Gujarat,» Journal of Peasant Studies 6, no. 1 (1978): 41–70; no. 2 (1979): 168–209.

21 Pooja Adhikari and Vani Shree, «Human Cost of Sugar: Living and Working Conditions of Migrant Cane Cutters in Maharashtra,» Oxfam India Discussion Paper, February 3, 2020, https://d1ns4ht6ytuzzo.cloudfront.net/oxfamdata/oxfamdatapublic/2021-02/Human%2 °Cost%20of%20Sugar_Maharashtra%2 °Case-2.pdf?33ji.96dQfp5xHQ9svf-wmnaSKE_ywIEC.

22 Manfred Pohl, Die Geschichte der Sьdzucker AG 1926–2001 (Munich: Piper, 2001), 127.

23 См., например: Alexander Claver and G.Roger Knight, «A European Role in IntraAsian Commercial Development: The Maclaine Watson Network and the Java Sugar Trade c. 1840–1942,» Business History 60, no. 2 (2018): 202–230.

24 John Paul Rathbone, The Sugar King of Havana: The Rise and Fall of Julio Lobo, Cuba’s Last Tycoon (New York: Penguin, 2010), 111–113.

25 Ulbe Bosma, «Up and Down the Chain: Sugar Refiners’ Responses to Changing Food Regimes,» in Navigating History: Economy, Society, Knowledge and Nature, ed. Pepijn Brandon, Sabine Go, and Wybren Verstegen (Leiden: Boston: Brill, 2018), 267; Al Imfeld, Zucker (Zurich: Unionsverlag, 1986), 77–82.

26 Frederick F.Clairmonte and John H.Cavanagh, «World Commodities Trade: Changing Role of Giant Trading Companies,» Economic and Political Weekly 23, no. 42 (1988): 2156; Thomas Braunschweig, Alice Kohli, and Silvie Lang, Agricultural Commodity Traders in Switzerland – Benefitting from Misery? (Lausanne, Switzerland: Public Eye, 2019), 5.

27 Philippe Chalmin, The Making of a Sugar Giant: Tate and Lyle: 1859–1959 (Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic, 1990), 668–671; «Sir Saxon Tate Bt,» Telegraph, September 5, 2012.

28 «Foreign Business,» Mitr Phol Group, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.mitrphol.com/offshore.php.

29 Birla, Brushes with History, 5–7.

30 «History Timeline,» ASR Group, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.asr-group.com/history-timeline; Bosma, «Up and Down,» 259, 266.

31 Gary W.Brester and Michael A.Boland, «Teaching Case: The Rocky Mountain Sugar Growers’ Cooperative: ‘Sweet’ or ‘Sugar-Coated’ Visions of the Future?» Review of Agricultural Economics 26, no. 2 (2004): 291.

32 «Tate and Lyle Sugar Division Sold to US Company,» Agritrade, August 7, 2010, https://agritrade.cta.int/en/layout/set/print/Agriculture/Commodities/Sugar/Tate-and-Lyle-sugar-division-sold-to-US-company.html.

33 Ben Richardson, Sugar (Cambridge: Polity, 2015), 204.

34 Alex Dubb, Ian Scoones, and Philip Woodhouse, «The Political Economy of Sugar in Southern Africa – Introduction,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 448; Haley, Sugar and Sweetener Situation, 24–39; United States Department of Agriculture, Sugar: World Markets and Trade (May 2022), 7, Foreign Agricultural Service, https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/sugar-world-markets-and-trade.

35 Ben Richardson, «Restructuring the EU-ACP Sugar Regime: Out of the Strong There Came Forth Sweetness,» Review of International Political Economy 16, no. 4 (2009): 674; European Commission, «EU Sugar Quota System Comes to an End,» CTA Brussels Office Weblog, October 9, 2017, http://brussels.cta.int/indexa9a6.html?option=com_k2&view=item&id=15325:eu-sugar-quota-system-comes-to-an-end.

36 «Südzucker – Corporate Profile,» Agritrade, September 27, 2014, https://agritrade.cta.int/en/Agriculture/Commodities/Sugar/Suedzucker-corporate-profile.html.

37 «Tereos – Corporate Profile,» Agritrade, July 23, 2014, https://agritrade.cta.int/en/Agriculture/Commodities/Sugar/Tereos-corporate-profile.html.

38 Mark Carr, «AB Sugar’s Modern Slavery Statement 2018,» November 2018, https://www.absugar.com/perch/resources/abs-modern-slavery-statement-2018-2.pdf.

39 «Acquisition of Illovo Minority Interest Update,» Associated British Foods, May 25, 2016, https://www.abf.co.uk/media/news/2016/2016-acquisition-of-illovo-minority-interest-update.

4 °Coronado and Robertson, «Inter-American Development,» 121, 134; J.Dennis Lord, «End of the Nation-State Postponed: Agricultural Policy and the Global Sugar Industry,» Southeastern Geographer 43, no. 2 (2003): 287; «About Us,» Alliance for Fair Sugar Policy, дата обращения: 27.01.2022, https://fairsugarpolicy.org/about/.

41 Colin Grabow, «Candy-Coated Cartel: Time to Kill the U.S. Sugar Program,» Policy Analysis, no. 837 (April 10, 2018): 2, https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/candy-coated-cartel-time-kill-us-sugar-program.

42 Alec Wilkinson, Big Sugar: Seasons in the Cane Fields of Florida (New York: Vintage, 1990), 79.

43 Gail M.Hollander, Raising Cane in the ’Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 258.

44 Deborah Jean Warner, Sweet Stuff: An American History of Sweeteners from Sugar to Sucralose (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press/ Rowman and Littlefield, 2011), 80.

45 Zachary Mider, «Rubio’s Deep Sugar Ties Frustrate Conservatives,» Bloomberg, January 29, 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-28/rubio-s-deep-sugar-ties-frustrate-conservatives; Grabow, «Candy-Coated Cartel,» 8; Timothy P. Carney, «At Kochfest, Rubio Defends Sugar Subsidies on National Security Grounds,» Washington Examiner, August 2, 2015, https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/at-kochfest-rubio-defends-sugar-subsidies-on-national-security-grounds.

46 Peter Wallsten, Manuel Roig-Franzia, and Tom Hamburger, Sugar Tycoon Alfonso Fanjul Now Open to Investing in Cuba under ‘Right Circumstances,’ Washington Post, February 2, 2014.

47 Tim Lang and Michael Heasman, Food Wars: The Global Battle for Minds, Mouths, and Markets, 2nd ed. (London: Earthscan, 2004), табл. 8.4; «Tate & Lyle Europe (031583),» FarmSubsidy.org, дата обращения: 27.01.2022, https://farmsubsidy.org/GB/recipient/GB47951/tate-lyle-europe-031583-gb-e16-2ew/source.

48 Scott B.MacDonald and F.Joseph Demetrius, «The Caribbean Sugar Crisis: Consequences and Challenges,» Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 28, no. 1 (1986): 37; «Flüssig ist billiger,» Spiegel, October 3, 1976, http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41136649.html. См. также: E.K.Aguirre, O.T.Mytton, and P.Monsivais, «Liberalising Agricultural Policy for Sugar in Europe Risks Damaging Public Health,» BMJ (Online) 351 (2015): h5085.

49 Dan Roberts, «Sweet Brexit: What Sugar Tells Us about Britain’s Future outside the EU,» Guardian, March 27, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/mar/27/brexit-sugar-beet-cane-tate-lyle-british-sugar; Michael Savage, «Brexit Backers Tate & Lyle Set to Gain L73m from End of EU Trade Tariffs,» Guardian, August 8, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/aug/08/brexit-backers-tate-lyle-set-to-gain-73m-from-end-of-eu-trade-tariffs.

5 °Cм.: ATO Guangzhou Staff, People’s Republic of China: Annual Chinese Sugar Production Growth Expected to Slow, Prices Rise, GAIN Report Number: CH196006 (Guangzhou: US Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service, 2019); Y.R.Li and L.T.Yang, «Sugarcane Agriculture and Sugar Industry in China,» Sugar Tech 17, no. 1 (2015): 1–8.

51 «Base in China, March onto the Global Scene,» COFCO, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, http://www.cofco.com/en/AboutCOFCO/; «Sugar,» COFCO International, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.cofcointernational.com/products-services/sugar/.

52 Fowler and Fokker, «A Sweeter Future,» 23–30; Alan Terry and Mike Ogg, «Restructuring the Swazi Sugar Industry: The Changing Role and Political Significance of Smallholders,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 585, 592, 593; Emmanuel Sulle, «Social Differentiation and the Politics of Land: Sugar Cane Outgrowing in Kilombero, Tanzania,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 517, 528; P.James and P.Woodhouse, «Crisis and Differentiation among Small-Scale Sugar Cane Growers in Nkomazi, South Africa,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 535–549.

53 См.: P.Zuurbier et al., «Land Use Dynamics and Sugarcane Production,» in Sugarcane Ethanol: Contributions to Climate Change Mitigations and the Environment, ed. P.Zuurbier and J.van de Vooren (Wageningen, the Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2008): 29–62.

54 Thomas D.Rogers, The Deepest Wounds: A Labor and Environmental History of Sugar in Northeast Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 182, 188, 199, 204, 210.

55 Ujjayant Chakravorty, Marie-Hélene Hubert, and Linda Nostbakken, «Fuel versus Food,» Annual Review of Resource Economics 1 (2009): 658.

56 См.: Adhikari and Vani Shree, «Human Cost of Sugar.»

57 Carol B.Thompson, «Agrofuels from Africa, Not for Africa,» Review of African Political Economy 35, no. 117 (2008): 517; Mohamad Shohibuddin, Maria Lisa Alano, and Gerben Nooteboom, «Sweet and Bitter: Trajectories of Sugar Cane Investments in Northern Luzon, the Philippines, and Aceh, Indonesia, 2006–2013,» in Large-Scale Land Acquisitions: Focus on South-East Asia, ed. Christophe Gironde, Christophe Golay, and Peter Messerli (Boston: Brill-Nijhoff, 2016), 112–117; Borras, Fig, and Suárez, «The Politics of Agrofuels»; Marc Edelman, Carlos Oya, and Saturnino M.Borras, Global Land Grabs: History, Theory and Methods (Abingdon, England: Routledge, 2016); см.: Yasuo Aonishi et al., Not One Idle Hectare: Agrofuel Development Sparks Intensified Land Grabbing in Isabela, Philippines: Report of the International Fact Finding Mission: May 29th – June 6th 2011: San Mariano, Isabela, Philippines (Quezon City, Philippines: People’s Coalition on Food Sovereignty, 2011); «ITOCHU and JGC Launch Large-Scale Bio-Ethanol Production and Power Plant Businesses in the Philippines,» ITOCHU Corporation, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.itochu.co.jp/en/news/press/2010/100408.html.

58 «Cambodia/Thailand: Court Ruling on Mitr Phol Watershed Moment for Corporate Accountability in SE Asia,» Amnesty International, July 31, 2020, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/07/court-ruling-mitr-phol-case-watershed-moment-for-se-asia-corporate-accountability/.

59 «Thailand: Evicted Cambodian Villagers Sue Giant Mitr Phol; Amnesty International Submits Third Party Intervention to Thai Court,» Amnesty International, July 30, 2020, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa39/2806/2020/en/.

60 Blessings Chinsinga, «The Green Belt Initiative, Politics and Sugar Production in Malawi,» Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 3 (2017): 511, 514; Carr, «AB Sugar’s Modern Slavery Statement 2018.»

61 «Tate&Lyle Sugar to Be Fairtrade,» BBC News, February 23, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk news/7260211.stm.

62 «Rooted in Sustainability,» ASR Group, accessed April 18, 2022, https://www.asr-group.com/Sustainability-Report; «Sustainability,» Taiwan Sugar Corp., дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.taisugar.com.tw/english/CP2.aspx?n=10960.

63 «Environment,» Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida, дата обращения: 18.04.2022, https://www.scgc.org/environment/.

64 См., например: «Florida: Republican ‘Green Governor’ Seeks to Reverse Predecessor’s Legacy,» Guardian, January 23, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jan/23/florida-governor-ron-desantis-water-reservoir-environment.

65 Kenneth Starr et al., The Starr Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1998), 38; Marion Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (Berkeley: University of California, 2002), 109–110; Hollander, Raising Cane, 252, 261.

66 Kristin Wartman, «Food Fight: The Politics of the Food Industry,» New Labor Forum 21, no. 3 (2012): 76–77; Hans Jürgen Teuteberg, «How Food Products Gained an Individual ‘Face’: Trademarks as a Medium of Advertising in the Growing Modern Market Economy in Germany,» in The Rise of Obesity in Europe: A Twentieth Century Food History, ed. Derek J.Oddy, P.J.Atkins, and Virginie Amilien (Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2009), 84.

67 Harriet Friedmann, «From Colonialism to Green Capitalism: Social Movements and Emergence of Food Regimes,» in New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development, ed. Frederick H.Buttel and Philip D. McMichael (Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing, 2005), 251–253.

68 «Sweet News: Fairtrade Sugar Newsletter,» April 2020, https://files.fairtrade.net/Fairtrade-Sugar-Newsletter_2_2020_external-edition.pdf.